Planning for a changing countryside Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Planning for a changing countryside - Essay Example e in rural areas enjoying significantly higher incomes than urban areas.In many ways the rural economies have been developing along the same lines as the urban economies. A rural area can be defined to be an area that has a few population. The collection of people and activities in this area is limited, hence making it to be the total opposite of an urban centre or economy (NATO Advanced Research Workshop on the Role of Biodiversity Conservation in the Transition to Rural Sustainability, & LIGHT, 2004, 96). Therefore when discussing the rural economy of England, we are going to look at the less densely populated areas which is believed to have few economic activities being carried on. The key drivers of economic growth in regionalised rural economies in England are numerous. The first key driver of economic growth in the region is farming. In spite of the known fact that farming nowadays does not form the backbone of rural economies, to some extent it still matters in the regionalised rural areas. This is because most farmers have been advised to use new technologies while farming different products and this has encouraged a lot of farmers to practice farming in the region. Farming in the rural economy of England has led to development of farming industry in different areas around the country. With the growth of an industry, economic activities within the region are promoted as individuals find themselves interacting through such things like trade (GREAT BRITAIN. 2006, 202). Moreover, farming has also encouraged the government to formulate policies which guarantees citizens the future of food even in difficult situations. The polices formulated have worked along way in ensuring that both the food and farming industry functions as one, therefore assuring the citizens of the supply of food chain within the society. In addition, farmers have also been advised by the government and other parties concerned on the best practices to select when competing in a highly

Management information system Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Management information system - Research Paper Example Additionally, an effective MIS should have a clearly and concisely defined guidelines, practices of policies, procedures and standards for an organization (Stair & Reynolds, 2012). It should be supportive in all the levels it is used in and help the organization in achieving its long term strategic goals and objectives. This research paper discusses Management Information System (MIS) with special emphasis being laid on its capability to help organizations access, share, and use information. The researcher has used some of the iPhone MIS apps to support the effectiveness that can be achieved in sharing, accessing and using information in an organization while using MIS software. The ease at which organization can be able to access, share and use information is one of the aspects that have gained much consideration in the current world; through the information, current challenges are communicated in time and counter measures effected before more damage is experienced. Likewise, sound strategies are implemented in a timely manner. Modern organizations have been relying on MIS to order, organize, manage, and to manipulate the large amount of data and information generated for their various activities. AIS refers to a model that businesses entities use to manage their monetary data to be used by consultants, managers, auditors, regulatory organizations among others (Khurana, 2010). Accountants use AIS so as to ensure that business’s record keeping and all financial transactions are accurate and that they are easily accessible by persons and agencies who are legitimate to obtain them. AIS also plays another major role in ensuring that all the above types of records and data are safe (Gupta, 2011). The speed at which organizations are able to share information is a very essential aspect that modern businesses are giving much emphasis. Intradepartmental and interdepartmental interaction between various

Spectrophotometric Assay for Lipase Activity

Spectrophotometric Assay for Lipase Activity Decomposition of human and animals bodies depends on numbers of factors. One of these factors is the presence of bacteria, both endogenous and exogenous of the body. They use the environmental factors to drive the decomposition of the tissues in the body. The various tissues are degraded at different rates by different bacterial cells. As it was seen in the model burial of a pig that is the early stages of decomposition Gram negative bacterial were mostly present in the decaying body. But after 6 7 weeks later the Gram negative bacteria started to decrease as the number of Gram positive bacteria present in the decaying body started to increase. The bacteria produce enzymes which break down any tissue in the body. In the adipose tissue bacteria produces lipases which is secreted in to he tissue and slowly starts to break down the fat. Lipases producing bacterial has been collected from a model burial environment without any environmental factors to see if there is a difference in the activity of the lipase enzyme which are produced by different bacteria species. These bacteria were used in two of the spectrophotometric assay that has been described in the literature. The turbidity assay shows how quickly the lipase enzyme can break down the lipid in the emulsion solution. On the other hand the BALB (dimercaprol Tributyrate) DTNB (5, 5- dithiobis (2-nitrobenzoic acid)) method shows the increase in the product that is produced by the lipase. INTRODUCTION Lipases are found naturally as it is produced by plants, animals and micro-organisms. In the last few decades, the micro-organism production of lipases has been studied for commercial use, which leads to bacterial lipases being studied a great deal. Lipase enzymes breakdown and mobilize lipids which are present within the cell of the organism and the breakdown of lipid is also present in the environment. However there are many questions still unanswered. For example, is the activity of the lipases different when they are produced by different strains or species of bacteria? Hopefully in this research paper, this question will be answered. Bacterial Lipases When bacteria is grown in a surrounding of hydrophobic media, the bacterial cell releases lipase for the breakdown of fats in the environment for a source of energy. Bacteria produce lipases during the late phases of log phases and in the stationary phases. Lipases are hydrolases which hydrolyzes triacylglycerols in aqueous conditions to form fatty acids and glycerol. The reaction releases energy which is used for growth of the bacteria which is why the bacterium produces lipases within these phases. The substrates of the lipases are triacylglycerols which are hydrophobic and the reaction occurs in aqueous condition and this leads to the reaction occurring in lipid-water interface. Some lipases can also catalyze the synthesis of long chain fatty acids. Lipases contains ÃŽ ±/ÃŽ ² fold, which has eight ÃŽ ² sheets in the middle which are parallel except for the second ÃŽ ² sheet and the sheets are surrounded by ÃŽ ± helices. This fold offers a scaffold for the active site in the lipase molecule. The active site or binding site of the lipase molecule is where the interface occurs. This is where the chains of the enzyme are subdivided; at the bottom of the active site is where the ester bond binds to which means this region is hydrophilic. Towards the surface of the enzyme is where the molecule binds to the fatty acids and therefore this region is hydrophobic. Within the ÃŽ ²-sheets there is an area which is highly conserved which is made up of the triad which is a nucleophile and histidine. The nucleophile is made up several amino acids, which are Serine, Cysteine or aspartic acid. The nucleophile is present on ÃŽ ²5 and the histidine is present on ÃŽ ²7. The histidine is the only highly conserved area of the active site/enzyme that d iffers in shape and structure from one type of lipase enzyme to another. Another area of the active site that is important but only present in some type of lipases is the lid. This area is what gives the lipase enzyme the structural explanation of the interface property. When the substrate comes into contract with the lid, it opens the lipid water interface where the substrate binds to for the reaction to occur. Some lipase molecules are only active in the presence of Ca2+ and this is due to the subdivisions of the active site being bound together by the Ca2+ion. The hydrophobic region of the active site leads to less inhibitors that can bind to and inactivate the enzyme. Since lipases are extracellular enzymes, the secretion/production of these enzymes is affected by a number of factors: Nutritional enzymes are produced when the bacteria is in the presence of a lipid environment such as oil, tweens, hydrolyzable esters and triacylglycerols. These are the main sources of lipid but many bacteria can produce lipases in the presence of various sources of substrates. For example Pseudomonas aeruginosa produce lipase in the presence of long chain fatty acids such as oleic and linoleic acid. Temperature the temperature at which maximum production of lipase can occur depends on the optimum temperature for growth of bacteria. The temperature normally ranges from 30 60Â °C, but some can survive at colder or warmer temperatures. Therefore it depends on the type of bacteria in question. pH normally bacterial lipases are active in neutral pH or alkaline pH. However there are a few exceptions like Pseudomonas fluorescens lipase has an optimum pH of 4.8, whereas most bacterial species possess stability over a broad range of pH of 4 10. Effect of ion one type of lipase which is produced by Pseudomonas species is activated by the presence of Ca2+ ion in the environment. Growth of bacteria if the bacterial cell is present in the log phase then the production of lipase is decreased in the bacterial cell. Inhibitors inhibition of lipases does not affect the production or the secretion of the enzyme but affects the activity of the enzyme. There are two types of inhibitors; irreversible or reversible. The reversible inhibitors are split into two types. The first of which are non specific as they bind to the enzyme but not at the active site. When the inhibitor binds to the enzyme, the active site changes and therefore prevents the lipases from binding to the substrate as the structure of the active site has been changed. An example of this type of inhibitor is bile salts. However bile salts can activate some lipases such as the lipase produced by the pancreas. The second type of reversible inhibitors is specific inhibitors as they bind to the active site of the lipase enzyme. They can also be irreversible as the interaction between the inhibitor and the enzyme is so strong that it cannot be broken. An example of this type of inhibitor is boronic acid which can bind to the active site f or a long time but can still be removes leaving the active site unchanged. These types of inhibitors bind to the triad of the active site, which means that when they bind to the triad, the interaction is irreversible. There are three major types of microbial lipases depending on the substrate they bind to. Nonspecific these enzymes act randomly on the lipid substrate molecules which then completely breakdown the molecule. For example with the triglyceride molecule, the enzyme will break the ester in random fashion until the molecule is complete broken down to fatty acids and glycerol. Regiospecific these enzymes only hydrolyze the primary ester bond, these are the C1 and C3 bonds in the triglyceride molecule , which means that when hydrolyzing triglycerides the final products are free fatty acids, 1, 2(2,3)-diacylglyceride and 2-monoacylglyceride. Fatty acid-specific there are some bacteria that only produce this type of lipase and they bind to fatty acids which are then broken down by the lipase. One type of bacteria that can produce lipases that only bind fatty acids is the Achromobacterium lipolyticum. Other bacteria that produce this type of enzyme are Bacillus species which mostly bind to long chained fatty acids. However other bacteria like Pseudomonas species produce lipases that can bind to short or medium length of fatty acids. Staphylococcus aureus can produce a lipase molecule that can bind to unsaturated fatty acids. Lipase in Decomposition The bacteria that are going to be used in the research project are bacteria that were purified from a model burial environment. The bacteria that were present in the model burial environment must have been already been present in the pigs body, which means that all the bacteria that are going to be used are endogenous bacteria that are part of the pigs microflora. The bacteria sample had been taken out of the fluid from the decaying organism in a steel box which was free from all external environmental factors except from oxygen. The sample of bacteria was taken two times a week and then towards the end it was reduced to once a week. It was discovered that at the beginning of the decaying process the bacteria that were present were Gram negative bacteria. However after week 9 the bacteria that were growing in the decaying pig changed from Gram negative to Gram positive. These bacterial cells can release lipases which can break down fats in the body which leads to the formation of adi pocere. Adipocere is made up from a mixture of saturated fatty acids which have been produced during decomposition of the adipose tissue in the body. These adipoceres are formed straight away after death by lipases which are present inside the body. These lipases are mostly produced by the bacteria in the body of the pig which breaks down triglycerides to free fatty acids. If in a suitable environment, bacteria release lipases for hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids to its saturated form. Lipase Assays There are two assays that will be performed to find out the activity of the lipase which are present in the solution. The first is based on BALB DTNB method and it uses dimercaprol tributyrate (BALB) and 5, 5 dithiobis (2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DNTB). The lipase enzyme binds to BALB and cleaves it to form an SH group which then binds to DNTB. The product then forms a yellow product which then increases the absorbance which can be measured using a spectrophotometer. The colour intensity is measured at 412 nm; the colour change is proportional to the activity to lipase at to 1:1 ratio. The second assay also uses the spectrophotometer but this time it measures the optical density of the solution instead of measuring the amount of product that is formed. Tributyrin and olive oil is emulsified in the solution which gives a turbid appearance. As the lipase breaks down the lipid in the assay solution, the optical density of the solution decreases which can be measured. The optical density of the solute ion can be measured at 450nm. Both assays measure the activity of the lipase but in two different ways. The first measures the amount of product that is formed while the second measures the breakdown of the substrate. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Decomposition of human or animal bodies is dependent upon a number of factors. Bacteria which are endogenous (in the body) and exogenous (in the environment) are the key components of decomposition. Different tissues in the body degrade at different rates and are degraded by different bacteria. Previously it has been shown that bacteria in the model burial environment can produce lipases which breakdown the lipids found within the tissues of the body. However it does not tell you if there are different lipases that are secreted by different bacterial cells. Lipase production was demonstrated by using plate assay when lipase breaks down tween 20. Therefore it does not compare the different lipases produced and the activity of different bacterial species. There have been different spectrophotometric assays that have been described in the literature to calculate the activity of lipase enzymes, but only two of these will be used. The bacteria that is going to be used in the assay has been purified from fluid from a decaying pig in a steel box which is free from all external environmental factors expect oxygen. Two assays are going to be preformed to find the activity of lipase, the first one similar to the BALB DTNB method. Lipase forms a SH group on BALB which then binds to DTNM to give a yellow product. The amount of product that is formed in a solution is related to the activity of lipase in a 1:1 reacting ratio which is a direct measurement of the activity. The colour change is measured at 420 nm. The second assay is also measure the change in the solution but this time it measures the decrease of the substrate that is left in the solution. It measures the density of the solution, as the substrate (olive oil) is denser than the product. The density is measured 450 nm. The decreased of the substrate is related to the activity of lipase. At first before anything can be done we need to see if the bacteria cells produced lipase is by growing them in a plate which contains Tween 80. If the Tween is broken down then the bacterial cell produces lipase. MATERIALS AND METHODS The bacterial strains that were given to me were extracted from fluid from a pig that was decaying in a steel box which had a controlled environment that was free from all external environment factors expect fresh air. Bacterial Media The bacterial strains were grown in half nutrient agar which was made from 2.6g of nutrient broth (OXOID, Basingstoke, England) and 4.8g of Agar bacteriological (OXIOD) in 400ml of water which was autoclaved and then poured in to 20ml Petri dish. The bacterial strains were plated and left in a 30Â °C incubator overnight. After the bacteria were grown on just half nutrient agar, they were then grown on half nutrient agar with 4ml of sterile Tween 80 (SIGMA ALDRICH, UK) and 400Â µl of 10% of CaCl2 (scientific equipment, Loughborough, England). Again the plates were placed in a 30Â °C incubator. The bacterial strains were also grown in minimal medium agar which contained 2.8g of Potassium Hydrogen Orthophosphate (BDH Laboratory Supplies, Poole, England), 1.2g Sodium Dihydrogen Orthophosphate (BDH LS) and 0.04g of Magnesium Sulphate (BDH LS) in 200ml of sterile water and 2.4g of Agar bacteriological. After the solution came out of the autoclave, 2ml of Tween 80 was added and 200Â µl of 10 % CaCl2. For the bacterial strains to be used in spectrophotometric assay, the strains had to be grown in liquid media. The bacterial strains were grown in two different types of media, Tryptic Soy Broth and Minimal Medium. The Tryptic Soy Broth (TBS) was made from 30g/L Tryptone Soya Broth (OXIOD) which was autoclaved. After the bacteria were added to the media, the bottle was placed in a shaking incubator at 37Â °C over night. The Minimal Medium contained 14g/L of potassium hydrogen orthophosphate, 6g/L sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate and 0.2g/L of magnesium sulphate. 100Â µl of Tributyrate (SIGMA ALDRICH) was added to 10ml of the Minimal Media. The bacteria were added to the media and then placed in a shaking incubator at 37Â °C over night. Sample Solutions After the bacteria are left to grow, the media is used to make up three different samples of bacteria to use in both of the assays. The first sample is purified bacterial strain from the media and this was obtained when 1ml of the media was placed in a sterile eppendorf tube which was then centrifuged at full speed for 2 minutes. The supernatant was replaced with 500Â µl of 150mM of CaCl2 and 500Â µl of 200mM of Tris buffer (12.11g of Trizma base in 150ml of water and then 0.1M of HCl was added to make the pH of the solution 8, this to make 0.5M Tris Buffer which was then diluted to make 200mM solution) (SIGAM ALDICH). The second sample was done in the same manner but instead of adding Tris buffer and CaCl2 to the pellet, PBS (Phosphate buffered saline) solution is utilized to re-suspend the pellet and 2ml of the media solution is used. Each suspension was transferred in to a different Bijou Bottle which is kept on ice. The suspension in the Bijou Bottle is sonicated twice for 30 seconds at 30W. The last sample was made when the media solution is filtered with the use of a sterile syringe and sterile 0.2Â µm pore syringe filter and placing the filtered solution into a sterile universal bottle. 3ml of the media was only filtered. The samples were ready for the assay and two different that were used. They both measured the absorbance of the solution at different wavelengths. One measured the turbidity of the solution while the other looked at the change in the absorbance of the solution. Turbidity Assay For the turbidity assay an emulsion solution is made and it is made from 100mM of Tris buffer (4.975ml), 50mM of CaCl2 (4.975ml) and 50ml of lipid source (either olive oil or Tributyrate or both). The solution was sonicated for 3 minutes at 40W. The solution is left in a water bath until it is used for the assay. The emulsion solution is used in three different ways as the assay was performed in a cuvette, Petri dish or 96 well plate. When done in a cuvette, 40mg of low melting point agarose (SIGMA ALDRICH) is added and the boiled before sonication. The agarose stabilises the emulsion. If the assay was done in a 96 well plate, then no agarose is necessary. The last test that is performed is in 20ml plates; 20ml of the emulsion solution is made up with 80mg of agarose to made a solid media (INVITROGEN, Paisley, UK) which is then boiled before and after sonication. For the 96 wells plate, 200Â µl of the emulsion solution was placed in each well and then 20Â µl of the sample solution was added. As soon as the sample was added the absorbance is measured at 450nm to measure the optical density of the solution. The absorbance was then measured every 15 minutes up to 60 minutes. Here the samples that were used were grown in the Minimal Medium. The lipid source in this part of the assay was 25Â µl of olive oil and 25Â µl of Tributyrate in 10ml of the emulsion solution. For the assay that was done in the cuvette 1L of the emulsion solution was added to a micro cuvette and 100Â µl of the sample solution. The absorbance was also measured at 450nm as soon as the sample is been added and then every 5 minutes up to 45 minutes. The lipid source is 50Â µl of olive oil in 10ml of emulsion solution. For the plate assay after the solution was boiled for the second time, the solution was poured in to a plate for the agarose to set. After the agarose was set, wells were made in the agarose using a hollow punch about 8mm in diameter which was filled with 10Â µl of the sample solution and the plate was left at room temperature over night. In 20ml of the emulsion solution the lipid source was 50Â µl of each olive oil and Tributyrate. Colour Assay (BALB DNTB Method) The second assay measures the absorbance change in the working solution. The working solution is made from BALB (SIGMA ALDRICH) and DNTB (SIGMA ALDRICH) and Tris buffer solution. The working solution was made from 1 ml of BALB is added to 17.5ml of 0.5M of Tris Buffer at pH 8.5 and 625mg of DNTB. 150Â µl of the working solution is added to the well after adding 150Â µl of water. To this 10Â µl of the sample was added. When the assay was done in 96 well plate the absorbance was measured after the sample was added at 405nm and then every 10 minutes for 30 minutes. When the assay was done in a cuvette, at first 400Â µl of water was placed in the cuvette then 380Â µl of the working solution was added to the water. Then the 20Â µl of the working sample was added into the cuvette. The absorbance was the measured at 412 nm for the 20 minutes. The reason why there is a difference in the wavelength in which the absorbance is measured is due to the plate reader not being able to read the absorbance at 412nm. For this assay the samples that were used were prepared from the bacteria that were grown in TSB. RESULTS When the bacteria colonies were grown on the agar plate which had Tween 80 and CaCl2, around the colonies there was the presence of halos or the colonies has a halo this can be seen in figure 1a. The arrow shows the halo colonies of the bacteria species. The bacteria colonies that were placed on other plates was not as clear as 16C but the halo can only be seen when the plates are held up by the light (result not shown). Turbidity Assay The first assay that was done was the turbidity assay in a cuvette, the optical density of the solution did not increase or decrease, and it just stayed the same. But when the assay was done in the 96 well plate the optical density increased when the bacteria were added to the well, and then decrease and keep decreasing even after 60 minutes (figure 2a). Then the filtered media was added to the emulsion solution in the 96 well plate, the optical density again decreased. However not all the bacteria were filtered to see if there was a decrease in the optical density (figure 3). Only some of the bacteria were used to see if it was an enzyme that was decreasing the optical density and not the bacterial cells. However the general result showed a decrease in the optical density except for 2 bacterial strains (1A and 4A) which showed an increase in the optical density after 30 minutes and then it optical density again. Then the bacteria cell free lysates were added to the welled plate and the same result appeared as the optical density levels decreased once again. The bacteria that were used were the same bacteria that were used in the filtered part of the assay (figure 4). After 45 minutes the optical density is starting to level off. The gradient of the line for all the bacteria strains are the same as they all decrease at the same rate expect for bacteria strain 5 which has flatter gradient than the rest. For the plate test in the turbidity assay, the bacterial solution in the well was not present and no zone of clearance was noticeable in any of the plates (figure 1b). Only one of the plates is shown in the figure and the rest of the plates looked the same as no zone could be seen. Colour Assay (BALB DNTB Method) In the BALB-DNTB method, the absorbance increases when bacteria strain 6 was added to the working solution in a cuvette and measured for 20 minutes. The increase was slow for the first 10 minutes and then increased at a faster rate for the next 10 minutes, figure 5. When the assay was done in the welled plate, the absorbance increases for all the strains but some increase more than others. For example strain 5 increased from 4.204 to 4.412 while strain 1 only increased from 4.241 to 4.265. This is shown in a table in figure 2b. When only the media in which the bacteria grew in was added as the sample, the absorbance also increased for most of the bacterial strains but not as much as when the bacterial cells were added. For some of the strains the absorbance decreased. For example in strain 1 there was a decrease from 4.241 to 4.235, figure 2c. The same happened when the content of the bacterial cell was added to the working solution. But when the absorbance increased, the increase was bigger than the increase when media was added (figure 2d). However there were still some strains in which the absorbance still decreased in 20 minutes but the absorbance increased from 0 to 10 minutes and then decreased from 10 to 20 minutes. Figure 1, (a) the plate has been plated with strain 16C (left) and 16B (right); the halo can be seen clear by the arrow which is the colonies of bacteria 16C. However the halo can not be seen clearly in the colonies of bacteria. (b), the plate contain solid emulsion solution with well which contain lipases from different bacteria, and there is no presence of zone of clearance from any of the well. There were 3 plates in total and all look the same (only one is shown) but the well had different lipases from different bacteria. Figure 2, A is a table that shows the optical density change when bacterial was added to emulsion solution for the turbidity assay. The optical density decreases when the bacterial cells were added to the emulsion solution. The next 3 tables are showing the absorbance change when the strains were added to the working solution for the colour BALB-DNTB method, (B) has bacterial cells added to the working solution; (C) has only filtered media, which had bacteria growing in, was added and lastly (D) had bacterial cells free lysates added. In the colour assay the absorbance increased in all three cases. DISCUSSION Bacteria produce lipases that can break down or hydrolyse lipid molecules such as fats and oils. They produce lipases in the log phase of growth when there is a high level of lipid source for energy. There are different lipases which can break down different lipid molecules. The bacterium produces lipases to break down lipid for energy as adequate amount energy is present in lipids. As most of the lipids cannot cross the cell membrane, the lipid has to be catabolised into smaller lipid molecules which can then enter the cell where it is broken down further. Lipases from bacteria are studied for industrial uses. Here it was studied to see if the lipases that were produced from different bacteria are different and if there was any variation in the activity of the lipases. When the bacterial cells were grown on agar plate without any Tween 80 the bacterial colonies do not have any halos or precipitate around the colonies. But when some of the bacteria were grown in agar that contained Tween 80 and CaCl2 the colonies had halo colonies 3 to 8 days after they were inoculated. In the past Tween has been used for lipase activity to see if the bacteria produce lipase. If lipases are produced then it binds to the Tween and breaks the Tween down to fatty acids. The fatty acids then bind to the Ca in the media which forms crystals. These crystals then become soluble in the media which can then be seen by eye as halos. Some of the colonies had halos which meant that the cell produced lipases. Figure 6, the turbidity plate assay should have looked like this but what the figure 1b shows. There the one of clearance can be seen very clearly where as in the plate in figure 1b there are no clearing at all what meant the assay did not work at all. The turbidity assay that was done is the plate which showed no zone of clearance, it should have had zone of clearance around the well which contained the sample of bacteria. The bacteria in the wells should have diffused out of the well and in to the agarose media in which the bacteria should have released lipases to break down the olive oil and Tributyrate. When the lipids were broken down the media would have become clear. The plate should have look like figure 6 from, the zone of clearance is shown very clearly. The other assay that did not work was the same assay that was done with the cuvette. This is when the absorbance levels did not decrease but just stayed the same. The absorbance levels should have decreased and the reason in why this did not occur is not known. It might have been due to the stability of the solution as the agarose must have been concentrated which meant that the bacteria solution was not able to diffuse through the media. The concentration of agarose might be the problem because when agarose was not added like in the 96 well plate part of the assay, the absorbance of the emulsion solution decreased. This was due to the emulsion solution being turbid by lipid in the solution when sonicated, when the bacteria sample was added the optical density increased slightly as the bacteria cell scatter the light which leads to the increase in the optical density absorbance levels. The bacteria cell then releases lipase in the solution or lipase that are inside the cell break down the lipid in the emulsion solution which then leads to the decrease in the level of lipid in the emulsion solution which then means that less light is scattered. The well plate assay was done to 3 different type of sample solution, one of which contained bacteria cell, one of which contained the filtered media solution and the last contained the bacteria cell free lysates. The bacterial cells were used to see if the bacterial cell produced lipases. The filtered media was used to see if the bacterial cell released lipase in to the media and if it was in fact the lipase that was decreasing the absorbance and not anything else. The bacteria content was used after the bacteria cell were sonicated for one minute, to use all the lipases that had been produced by the bacterial cell but not secreted. As not all the bacteria cells release the lipase in to the media and sometime the lipid molecule is too big to cross the cell membrane and wall of the bacteria. To see if there are any differences in the activity of the different lipases which are produced by different bacterial cells, cannot be done by adding the sample to the emulsion solution as different concentration of lipase must have been in the sample for each of the strains. In order to make the test fair, the amount of bacterial cell and the lipase concentration must be the same for each of the bacterial strain. But still it might be a fair test as some of the bacterial cells can still divide inside the emulsion solution and then increase the concentration of lipases. The lipases produced by the bacteria are produced in the log phase. The same can be said for the BALB-DNTB method. This assay is not like the other assay because the absorbance does not decrease but increase. This is due to the lipase bind to the BALB in which is cleaved to form a SH group. The SH group then binds to DNTB which is in excess in the working solution, to form a yellow substance. The complex then absorbs light hence increasing the level of absorbance. The bind of the BALB with the new SH group binds to the DNTB in a one to one reacting ratio, this means that increases is absorbance is proportional to the reacting activity of the lipase. When bacterial cells were mixed to the working solution the absorbance for most of them increase. This meant that lipases that were present in the well were cleaved BALB. The same thing also occurred when filtered media was added to the working solution but the increase were small and this must be due to the fact that not a lot of lipases were released by the bacterial cells in to the media solution. However, when the bacterial cell free lysates is added not all of the absorbance levels increase but in fact some of them decrease and then increase. It may mean that the lipases need time to start working since they had been on ice before the experiment. To see if this was true, the test needs to be done again but for a longer period of time. In the cuvette test, only one strain, it was used when the first assay was done it had the largest change in absorbance. It was used to see a general increase of the solution over 20 minutes and the absorbance was measured every minute to see the turning point when the rate of enzymatic activity change from being slow to a steady normal rate. The graph in figure 5 shows that the rate was slow during the first 10 minute this meant the bacteria cell needed to adapt to the new environment before the activity of the enzyme can to back to normal. If the test was done longer then the graph would start to level due to the substrate concentration starting to decrease. From the results, there is not enough evidence to conclude that there any differences in the activity of the different strains of lipase. To see if it is true then the both of the a

Breaking Barriers: An Intersection of the Institution and the Information Superhighway :: Essays Papers

Breaking Barriers: An Intersection of the Institution and the Information Superhighway What it is all about Distance education. What is it? Barry Birnbaum has cited a feasible definition for it in his book, Foundations and Practices in the Use of Distance Education. The definition is according to a study done by Moore and Kearsley in 1996. Birnbaum quotes, â€Å"distance education is defined as planned learning that normally occurs in a different place and requires a well-defined system of delivery that includes modified teaching techniques, alternative modes for communication (i.e. computers), as well as alternative administrative and organizational components.† (Birnbaum, 2001, p. 1)[1] Then, again in 1996, another researcher by the name of Keegan assigned 5 criteria in his definition of distance education. These 5 criteria are: â€Å"a.) Separation of teacher and learner throughout the learning process, b.) The influence of the organization in the planning and preparation of learning materials, c.) The use of technical media to unite teacher and learner, d.) The role of two-way communication, and e.) The separation of the learning group during the process.† (Birnbaum, 2001, p. 2)[2] Bearing these two definitions in mind, let us proceed. I. How it was all started A man named Isaac Pitman started the whole concept of distance education in England around 1840.(Birnbaum, 2001, p. 10)[3] He wanted to create an opportunity for people to learn shorthand that would otherwise, not be able to do so due to work constraints or other everyday obligations. According to Birnbaum, since this period of time, the primary utilization of distance education has been in the field of foreign language. However, other institutions opt to employ distance education as well. For example, the armed services have found that technical training can be provided to a large number of military personnel in a cost-effective manner through distance education course delivery modules. (Birnbaum, 2001, p. 11)[4] Large corporations such as Best Buy also use e -learning in order to deliver quick, effective training to their employees in lieu of having an actual time reserved for training the employees.

United Nations Role in Peace and Security

As we all know the UNO is an international organization of almost 192 member countries of the world and was founded – rather replaced by the League of Nations some 63 years back in October 24,1945 in San Francisco, California, shortly after World War -II. No doubt the tragedy, bloodshed, massacre, hunger and nuclear atrocities by the USA gave alarming feelings to the nations to freeing the world from the possibility of wars in future. However, its successes and failures in achieving this objective are still debatable. The UNO as stated above is a renewed precursor body of the League of Nations. So before reviewing the UNO’s functions, it will be worthwhile to look into the history of the League as the new generation is not much aware of its role. LEAGUE OF NATIONS The League was founded after the devastation, slaughter, disaster and atrocities of the world war-I. It was also an international organization set up in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919-20 with only 58 members. Its major goal consisted of disarmament, prevention of war and settling disputes between the countries. The harbinger of setting up this organization was the United States President Mr. Woodrow Wilson. But surprisingly the Senate of his own country refused to become its member which was, no doubt, a serious blow to the prestige of the League. However, other great powers like the United Kingdom and France remained its members. It was to fulfil the dream of fundamental shift in the thought from the preceding centuries. Unlike the UNO,the League did not have its own armed forces and was dependent on the great powers to enforce its resolutions and peace-making struggles. It could not enforce its three sanctions as envisaged under its covenant. Therefore after,no doubt, a few notable successes, the following failures resulted in its replacement by the United Nations:- 1. In 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria but no effective sanction was imposed on the aggressor. 2. In 1935,Italy attacked Abyssinia but none of the great powers took any notice of it. . 3. Germany was not allowed to join the League in 1919 as it had started the war. 4. Russia was also denied its membership in 1917 being a communist government to pose fear in Western Europe. Eventually these three most powerful countries could not play their positive role in supporting the league. This sort of plight has been stated by Mussolini in a sarcaustic manner as under: â€Å"The League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out† So the League after the end of the first world war was replaced by the UNO in 1945 having remained in existence from 1919 to 1945. THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION After the closure of the League of Nations, the UNO was established on 24th October,1945 but its first General Assembly comprising 51 member countries was held on 10th January,1946 in London. One can well assess that the brunts and tragedies of both the world wars gave a fillip to the idea of revamping the body of the League to play more effective role anew to restore peace and harmony amongst the states. This idea was elaborated in the Declarations signed during war time conferences held in Moscow and Tehran in 1943. Mr. Franklin D. Roosevelt, the President of the USA proposed its name as UNITED NATIONS. Its charter was drafted by the governments as well as non-government organizations like Lion Club International. To start with 51 nations signed the charter of the United Nations. The charter was later ratified by five permanent members of the Security Council viz: USA, UK, France and China, followed by a majority of the other 40 signatories. As a result of the unanimous votes by the U. S. Senate and the House of Representatives, the UNO’s Headquarter were made in the United States. Accordingly U. N. Headquarters building was constructed in New York city in 1949 and 1950 beside the East River on the land purchased by an 8. million dollars donation from John D. Rockefeller. The land is now considered international territory but apart from some diplomatic privileges and immunities, the laws of the New York city,New York state and the U. S. in general do apply. The UNO is supported by some other organizations like the Security Council, UNICEF, WHO, UNESCO and a few more to resolve conflicts and to maintain peace in the world as well as to eliminate illiteracy, poverty, hunger and to enhance respect for human rights. PAKISTAN’S ROLE IN THE UNO. Pakistan is proud to play its role in the peace-keeping missions of the United Nations. Pakistan became its member on 30th September,1947 i. e. just after one month’s creation of it on the world map as a new country. Since 1960, Pakistan is enthusiastically performing its responsibility in the U. N. peace-keeping missions with over ten thousand troops and observers. Currently Pakistan’s involvement in restoring peace in Somalia, Sierra Leon, Bosnia, Congo, Liberia and East Temore have been commended not by the UNO but the world at large. No other country including any muslim state has been that active to contribute this sort of role in the United Nations. This speaks of the valour and vividity of our armed forces on the global impact. Conclusion The first decade of the 21st century is going to complete with both hope and distress co-existing side by side. Peace and development and concept of democracy and equality are still missing in many parts of the world despite our trumpeted slogan of world getting into a global village. No doubt the globalization has drawn countries closer and closer with reference to their economic relationship, advanced means of communications and regional cooperation etc. But these developments are posing some alarming questions to the general public like local wars, revolutions and conflicts coming up from time to time. The Iraq war and situation between Israel and Palestine witnessing tragedies every day. Similarly wars in Africa entangled with poverty and diseases are still continuing. As a matter of fact after the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan on 6th and 8th August,1945, the possession of nuclear device by some countries created a sense of self-protection and safety. In this way the dream of peace and harmony in the world does not seem to be converted into the reality in the near future. But we are not that pessimist because the UNO is undoubtedly a microcosm of the world and despite so many reservations politically, its role in promoting disarmament for a safer future to the posterity cannot be denied. In the global concept its importance and necessity is gaining momentum day by day. It is now the most acclaimed universal representative and authoritative organization with 192 member countries in its present set up and we do hope that it will progress more in the time to come. Those countries who have not become its members so far, should also come forward to strengthen the UNO in general and the present Secretary General Mr. Ban Ki-moon In particular.

Heavy school bags Essay

Students have been yelling their complaint on heavy school bags for years. Yet, not many constructive responses have been made by society so far. According to a recent news report, the average weight of an S.3 student’s school bag is now 5 kg, while the burden of a primary six student is no less light if calculated in the school bag weight-to-body weight ratio. Heavy school bags create unbearable pressure to the spines of growing teens. Instead of telling students not to bring unnecessary items to school, I believe that there are far more measures schools and textbook publishers can take to alleviate the worrying situation. Textbooks constitute a major proportion of weight in a school bag. There have been voices from parents that textbook publishers are the ones to blame. In average, the number of pages in a secondary school textbook is 200. Despite the fact that students have to bring 200 pages to school (for one subject only), generally teachers only go over about 20 pages p er month. By easy calculation one can conclude that bringing such a think textbook is both pitiful and absurd. Actually, there is one practical and beneficial solution. Textbook publishers should separate the textbooks into different booklets, each covering a discrete topic. Since teachers usually lecture in a topic-based approach, students will only need to bring a thin booklet to school under the new arrangement. Not only do students benefit from a lighter load, but the publishers will gain as well. The use of loose-leaf binding in textbooks will need more pieces of paper in total, because cash booklet will have its own cover and functional pages such as content and index pages. The extra cost should not be significant as it will be averaged out by mass production, but the publishers can lift the price a bit as long as customers are willing to buy a textbook using a better binding method. The publishers will have nothing to lose but profit to gain, so why should they delay the ‘textbook reform’? Apart from textbook publishers, schools should be more lenient towards students. They should not punish students for leaving bulky textbooks inside their drawers. Although schools are concerned about pupils not studying if they leave textbooks at school, there can be other methods than banning it to solve the problems. For instance, teachers can distribute concise notes for students to study. Also, schools can extend the opening hours so that students can finish their revision at school and need not take a huge pile  of heavy textbooks home. Sometimes the school may require students to bring non-textbook items, like painting sets, readers and so on, to school. I recommend that schools should provide each student with a locker whenever possible. If the space of the school is too limited to place lockers, installing a drawer with lock to each student desk is also a favorable alternative. In this way, the weight of school bags can be further lessened. Last but not least, students should bear some responsibility for their huge daily burden. I heard that some students are far too lazy to tidy up their school bags every day. They put everything, no matter necessary or not, into their school bags but they never take anything out. As a result, the weight of the bag continuously increases. Primary kids should not be blamed for this since they might not know what to put in a school bag and need assistance from their parents. However, as secondary students, teenagers should be able to manage their school bags well. There is no excuse for them not to organize the items they have to bring to school. They will certainly find their school bags much lighter if they organize them wisely. As stated above, the problem of overweight school bags can be easily dealt with if textbook publishers, teachers and students are willing to take a step forward. A small step of progress might already result in a large reduction in school bag weights. I hope that next year I will hear from the news that the school bags have become fitter than before .

Sample Research Paper on War

Sample Research Paper on War Attempting to evaluate the origins of World War One is both a complex and contentious issue, highly debated amongst historians with discussion centering on war guilt and the main contributing factors. Amongst the most topical problems in this area are the extent of Germanic blame concerning the war guilt dispute, and also the degree of blame that can be placed on the Alliance System in creating a warm climate. The view that the Alliance System was the key element of the war climate can be supported by the argument that it is what caused the war to transform from an isolated incident to a global war. Whereas, this can be defended by the view that the whole tension of the European powers before the 1914 outbreak can be attributed to all elements of the environment equally. When analyzing which nation was the main aggressor of war, Germany, according to many historians deserves to shoulder much of the blame. Contrary to this, the Revisionist school of thinking does not see Germanys pre- war actions as offensive but rather defensive. This school of thought shares the blame equally amongst the powers when considering some of the factors on the pre 1914 Germany. The joining of these two arguments shows the complexity of the origins of the war to end all wars, and show that there is validity in many of the viewpoints when considering the arguments and the bias that each historian is inevitably subject to. Of all of the components within the pre-war environment, the Alliance System is the element that determined the creation of a global war and additionally was a factor in generating suspicion between the powers during the lead up to the war. By the outbreak of war in August 1914, Europe and through imperialism much of the world, was divided into two sharply opposed and hostile armored camps, due to the Alliance System. The alliances were comprised of France, Britain, and Russia on the one side under the Triple Entente agreement (1907). The opposing force was the Triple Alliance (1882), which included Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Italy. The alliances held the fundamental purpose of mutual military assistance in time of attack or defense. Additionally, they acted as the balance upon which power was rested, so each Alliance was counteracted by an equal and opposite force. This system is what ensured that as war broke out, it spread rapidly due to alliance obligations engaging other nations and their empires in the first local conflict. This view is expressed by Paul Kennedy when saying, These coalitions mean that even if one belligerent was heavily defeated in a campaign or saw that its resources were inadequate to sustain further conflict; it was encouraged to stay in the war by hope and promise of aid from its allies. The alliance system itself virtually guaranteed that the war would not swiftly be decided The words of Paul Kennedy show assuredly that the comparatively insignificant assassination of Austrian heir, Franz Ferdinand in the Balkans, the crisis would not have escalated to the death of ten million soldiers without all the nations being dragged down the vortex of war due to allied responsibilities. The significant role of the Alliance System and its repercussions on the war to end all wars is demonstrated in this argument, but tends to exclude evidence supporting other causes of war. The Alliance System had a bearing impact on the magnitude of the Great War but does not account for the many other contributing elements that created the tensions between the European Great Powers during the early twentieth century. The war climate also undoubtedly involved militarism, nationalism, and imperialism. The belief that each nation should build up to it army, navy and military techniques to the point that would be intimidating to its opposition, can be considered as what turned Europe into a metaphoric powder keg, waiting for the lethal catalyst. Additionally, the aggressive colonial interests of each Great Power fuelled the war climate, particularly the Kaiser who sought colonies as a key part of his foreign policy. However, this argument is also countered by the France and Britain alliance, as they were strong colonial enemies. Finally, the view that nationalism had a significant impact on the climate which mounted into the Great War is supported by the historian Gordon Greenwood, when he wrote in 1973, The underlying reason for the struggle may be found in.. each nation acting in accordance with what appeared to be at the time for its rulers to be its own best interests. This interprets the value of nationalism as a provocative element in the origins of World War One, with each nation standing to defend the interests of that nation aggressively and to prove the strength which their respective nations were capable of. Thus the evaluation of the pre1914 war climate can be considered with Alliance System in the fore frontal position as the main cause, but the historical analysis can also logically place any one of the other elements of the war climate as the main basis for war. The climate of the Great War was merely the stage set for the instigation, for which the argument of war guilt is exhaustive and multifaceted. Combining the notoriously aggressive nature of the German people with the confrontational and suspicious nature of Kaiser Wilhelm IIs foreign policy, many historians view the tensions and instigation of World War One as largely responsible of Germany. The unification of Germany holds vital evidence to the trademark German aggression, referred to by many historians. In 1848 the democratic Frankfurt Assembly failed to unify Germany. Where diplomacy fell short, the policies of Bismarck are expressed in 1871, when he said, not by speeches and majority votes are the great questions of the day answered that was the mistake of 1848 but by blood and iron ( Cowie, H.R. 1987 page 93) Bismarcks ambitions were successful in 1871, when after three short wars; his unification plan was founded, while amongst historians opinions formed on the impact this event had on the psyche of the German people. About the war climate, L.C.B. Seaman voices this argument by saying the historical traditions of the Reich knew no principle other than that of the exercise of power for its sake the Germans stampeded into war, the mindless and purposeless victims of their history. Although this view was written eight decades after the conclusion of the war and in England, a nation which opposed Germany at war, this evidently illustrates the belief that Germany was actively seeking a fight. Furthermore, a prime example of Germanys aggressive actions was the creation of a navy which rivaled the traditional supremacy of the British Navy and is considered the catalyst which drew Britain out of splendid isolation. As expressed by A.J. P. Taylor, The great navy had no defensive purpose. For that, Germany would have needed coastal forts and vessels, which were not built. The navy was therefore purely a weapon of offensive. The newly formed navy was seen by both the British at the time and historians in retrospect, as an aggressive tactic to draw the world towards war; a war which Germany believed would entail economic and colonial benefits. The extent of German war guilt is hence evaluated from this perspective that German guilt was due to the aggression of the already existing tensions of the war climate. The claim that Germany was the most prominent aggressor of the Great War is agreed to be valid based on the presented facts, but Germany could, to the contrary, be perceived in an entirely different light to show its pre-1914 actions as defensive. The hindsight of historian can be viewed as distorted in the time following 1919, directly due to the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, within which Germany was forced to confess to sole war guilt. As expressed by Sidney Bradshaw Fay in 1928, One must abandon the dictum of the Versailles Treaty that Germany and her allies were solely responsible. It was a dictum exacted by victors from vanquished, under the influence of blindness, ignorance, hatred, and the propagandist misconceptions to which war had given rise. This very importantly reminds us that the War Guilt Clause was a punishment on a nation that lost a war, not a valid and educated analysis of historical events. It was upon this basis that in the 1920s, many historians revised the extent of German War guilt, and concluded that it was far less than ever before conceived. This way of thinking, in consequence, became known as the revisionist school. From the time of the creation of the Germanic States in 1871, it had to defend its borders against the surrounding hostile states of Russia and France. Germany very rapidly an aggressively became a Great Power in Europe, but this can be seen as a method for German survival or an action en route to war. The Australian historian, Moses takes an interesting stance on the issue by stating, The Reich was encircled by a group of envious, vengeful and barbaric powers. The Reich had only wished to preserve her ally, Austro-Hungary, from collapse. Germany had thus gone to war for the noblest of motiv es. This is quintessential to the revisionist thought, and presents a strong opposing argument to the belief in German war guilt, and is logically supported. While the full details of this historian were unavailable, the fact that he is Australian and thus not essentially biased to the German view gives the argument a strong authority. The revisionist school of thought is shown to encompass what evidence is seen to be omitted when allocating sole blame on Germany, and thus a strong counter-argument is formulated on this basis. The simplicity of blaming one nation or one contributing factor is undermined when evaluating the true complexity of the Great Wars tensions and instigation. When analyzing the role of the alliance on the war, it can undoubtedly be observed as the transformer from a localized to global conflict. The weather this stands as the main reason for war is queried when analyzing the implications of other factors, these specifically being militarism, nationalism, and imperialism. Similarly, when endeavoring to analyze Germanys role in the war, Fritz Fishers view of German aggression is valid to his presentation of evidence. Contrary to this, the elements which were characterized as aggressive can be seen as defensive actions when considering Germany being surrounded by unfriendly states. The melding of these arguments, show the intricate workings of the pre-war period, and neither the climate can be solely defined by the Alliance System, nor can the instigator be blamed solely on Germany, whe n considering all views and beliefs being subject to the inevitable prejudice of all historians. Despite the controversial nature of Germanys war guilt, it can be said assuredly the Treaty of Versailles is what oppressed Germany during the interwar period and shaped a nation susceptible to the regime of Hitler.

The Story of an Hour Irony and Symbolism Essay Example

The Story of an Hour Irony and Symbolism Essay Example The Story of an Hour Irony and Symbolism Paper The Story of an Hour Irony and Symbolism Paper In Kate Chopins short story The Story of an Hour, the narrator portrays issues of love, freedom, and independence on a physical and mental level. This story was written based on the 19th century woman. The time when a woman had minimum rights, and barely had a role in society. Even in a loving relationship, a woman was still unequal to a man; she did not have the freedom she desired. Chopin uses irony, symbolism and reverse theory to express Louise Mallards thoughts as she grieved her husbands death and embraced her newly found freedom. Throughout the text, Chopin uses two types of irony; situational and dramatic. This story is mainly based on ironic issues, meaning that the readers are portrayed one picture and the opposite thats not expected is what eventually happens. When Mrs. Mallard received the news about her husbands death, she faced a series of mixed emotions, which were kind of conflicting. She briefly grieves her husband, and at the same time is bombarded with thoughts of the free life that awaited her with this occurrence. She wept at once, with sudden, wild abandonment, in her sisters arms alone. She would have no one follow her {paragraph 3}. The dramatic irony comes to play when Josephine, Mrs. Mallards sister is worried that her sister has locked herself in her room tearing up, when shes really in the room thinking about how wonderful her lifes going to be. Josephine was kneeling before the closed door with her lips to the keyhole, imploring for admission. Louise, open the door! I beg; open the door†you will make yourself ill. What are you doing, Louise? For heavens sake open the {paragraph 17}. Another instance of dramatic irony is at the end of the story right before Mrs. Mallard dies. The author presents a situation where Louise Mallard dies of being overjoyed at the sight of her husband. In reality the rony is that she dies of the shock and distress in seeing her husband standing before her. When the doctors came they said she had died of heart disease†of Joy that kills {paragraph 23}. Symbolism the particular idea or quality that is expressed by a symbol (Merriam- Webster). In this story the author uses symbols to represent her ideas in expressing Mrs. Mallards feelings. There are three major uses of symbolism in this story. The first example of symbolism is Louise Mallard being afflicted with heart trouble. The heart trouble signifies her discontent with her marriage and the sadness at her absence of freedom. The second occurrence of symbolism is the opened window. The opened window represents freedom, as Mrs. Mallard lets out the old air in the room and lets go of her old life she welcomes the fresh air and a new life. The new life she is now about to experience now that she is finally free from her unhappy relationship. She could see in the open square before her house the tops of trees that were all aquiver with the new spring life. The delicious breath of rain was in the air {paragraph 5}. There was a feverish triumph in her eyes, and she carried herself unwittingly like a goddess of Victory {paragraph 20}. Chopin also uses the statement above from paragraph 20 to show symbolism. The symbols in this paragraph are feverish triumph and goddess of victory. This represents Louise triumph and being victorious over her restricted marriage. There would be no powerful will bending to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature {paragraph 14}. The idea of reverse theory is used to bring a little twist into the story. Reverse theory is actually used throughout the story but is not revealed until the end. Throughout the story, the author makes the audience believe that Mr. Mallard died in a tragic railroad accident. At the end of the story it is revealed that Mrs. Mallard was the one that actually died at the shock of seeing her husband. When she saw that her husband did not die, her thoughts and vision of a new life were shattered, and thats when the story became tragic in reality and ended with the passing of Louise Mallard. The theme of Chopins story is very unified, starting and ending the story emphasizing on Mrs. Mallards heart issue, which portrayed a mental and physical significance to her life. Ironically, the last hour of Mrs. Mallards life was victorious for her and she had a chance to envision part of the freedom that she always wanted.

Assessing Young Learners Speaking Ability in the Fifth Grade of Three Elementary Schools in Padang Essay Example for Free

Assessing Young Learners’ Speaking Ability in the Fifth Grade of Three Elementary Schools in Padang Essay Learning (1721) , Learners (44) , Elementary school (34) company About StudyMoose Contact Careers Help Center Donate a Paper Legal Terms & Conditions Privacy Policy Complaints A. Background of the Problem Communicative view development in English learning makes the focus on English teaching changed. What once became structurally focused, it now moves toward meaningful language-focused. Students are not asked to memorize structure-based dialogues without knowing the meaning anymore. There are no more grammatically controlled sentences for students’ meaningless repetition. Dialogues, if used, center around communicative functions and are not normally memorized (Richards & Rodgers, 1986). That makes the teaching of speaking becomes the core part of English teaching. Just like the adults, young learners today are also taught speaking meaningfully and communicatively. However, young learners have distinctive characteristics compared with adult learners. One of them is children are still developing cognitively, linguistically, socially, emotionally, and physically (Teaching Knowledge Test Young Learners: Handbook for Teachers, 2010). In other words, in teaching speaking to them, teachers need to consider children’s development of skills in the native language first. Young learners also enjoy rhythmic and repetitive language more than adults do. They are more likely to play with language than adults are, and they can be more effectively engaged through stories and games (Peck, 2009). The different techniques and approaches in teaching speaking to young learners lead to different ways in the speaking assessment. This is the problem faced by Indonesian young learners’ teachers nowadays. Most teachers do not know how they should assess their young learners’ speaking ability; some finally choose to skip the speaking assessment and focus on pencil-paper-tests. Thus, this research is conducted to discover and reveal ways of assessing young learners’ speaking ability. B. Identification of the Problem Based on the background above, the speaking assessment techniques used for young learners should be different from the adult. It should be suited with their cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical development. As we looked upon Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices by Brown (2010) and integrated it with curriculum standard in Indonesia, KTSP 2006, young learners will be better to be assessed in imitative and intensive speaking categories, such as imitating teachers’ saying, directed response tasks, read-aloud tasks, and dialogue completion tasks. Alternative assessments such as interviews and conferences can also be applied for them. C. Limitation of the Problem In this research, the problem will be focused on the speaking assessment techniques in the fifth grade of three selected elementary schools in Padang. D. Formulation of the Problem * What kind of speaking assessment technique used by elementary school English teachers? * Why do they use such techniques? E. Purpose of the Research The purpose of this research is to discover and reveal the technique used by English teachers to assess elementary school students’ speaking ability. F. Significance of the Research Theoretically, this research is aimed to give a description of how speaking assessment for young learners done in Indonesia. Practically, some techniques used by English teachers provided here can be a source of alternative speaking assessment. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. The Nature of Assessment There has been various explanation of what assessment is. Brindley (as stated in Linse, 2005) refers assessment as â€Å"collecting information and making judgments on a learner’s knowledge†. It means that in assessing students, we need to find out what students know about the subject being taught and how far that understanding has reached the learning indicator. In the same line with Brindley but with an addition, Brown (2010) states assessment as â€Å"an ongoing process of collecting information about a given object of interest according to procedures that are systematic and substantively grounded.† In his statement above, Brown implies that the process of collecting and judging students’ understanding is not done orderly in one single time; it is done continuously. Harris and McCann (1994) also give an essential note that in doing assessment teachers have to measure the performance of their students and the progress they make, as well as diagnose the problems they have and provide useful feedback. In other words, collecting and judging students’ intelligence is not enough; finding out what becomes students’ problem and giving advice to them to overcome the problems is also important to create a more successful learning process. Based on the theories above, it can be seen that assessment involves collecting information about students’ knowledge and judging their understanding in order to diagnose the learning problems they have so that students can get useful feedback to be more-successful learners. B. The Nature of Speaking As stated in the previous chapter, today’s English teaching focuses more on communicative purpose of language learning than in the past. It leads to the more important consideration of speaking skills than in previous time. Just like assessment, there is also various definition of speaking. One of them is from Lingua Links (1998) that defines speaking as productive skill in the oral mode that involves more than just pronouncing words. Referring to today’s communicative view, of course speaking cannot be thought as just pronouncing words; it needs to be meaningful, and communicative. Furthermore, Noonan (2003) states that, if pronunciation included, speaking involves three areas: mechanics (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary), functions (transaction and interaction), and social cultural norms and rules (turn-taking, rate of speech, etc). All of them are connected to each other and prove that speaking is not only about what is uttered, but also the meaning and social purpose. C. The Nature of Young Learners Young learner is a child who is in their first six year of formal education, from age 6 to 12 (Teaching Knowledge Test Young Learners: Handbook for Teachers, 2010). Many experts argue that it is beneficial to teach the children English since young age. TKT Young Learners (2010) notes one of the advantages that those children will have positive self-esteem toward English and it will help them to learn English more once they are adult. That is why teaching English to young learners considered important today. However, young learners have characteristics that make them different from the adults (Teaching Knowledge Test Young Learners: Handbook for Teachers, 2010). First, they are still morally, cognitively, psychologically developed. Based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, children in age 6-12 years old are still in concrete operational thought stage, they already have the ability to do logical reasoning and understand reversibility with the help of concrete objects (Santrock, 1998). It means that explaining theory will not do for them, we need to make them move, do games, sing, etc. Second, young learners often have no obvious reason for learning English. Unlike adults who want to do it because of the career-related reasons or teenagers that do it to pass an exam, young learners do not have concrete reason why they must learn English. However, it does not mean they are not motivated to learn English; their goodwill, energy, and curiosity to learning overcome that. Third, they may not always have well-developed literacy skills to support their learning of English. Many children in the age of 6-12 years old are just getting to know their first language. It means that as a teacher we need to not have too-high expectation and do more. Fourth, young learners often learn slowly and forget quickly. It is related to the first characteristic that young learners are still developed morally, socially, and cognitively. Their still-ongoing developments in those basic things make them forget easily and learn slowly. This is why songs, agmes, and chants do best for them. D. Principles of Assessing Young Learners According to METU Open Course Ware (2006), principles of assessing children’s language learning are: 1. Assessment should be seen from a learning-centered perspective. It means that we cannot get a true assessment by testing kids what they can do alone. It has been stated by many experts that the goal of learning English is to be able to communicate meaningfully in English. Testing students, let alone young children, as a tool to get true assessment will not congruent with the real goal of English learning and it will just be wasting time. 2. Assessment should support learning and teaching. This is something that is not also becomes a problem with young learners, but also with the adult. Before performance-based assessment is introduced, teachers chose paper-and-pencil tests as their source of assessing (Puppin, 2006). It becomes a problematic then since students do not see the connection between the learning and the test they are doing, ; they see them as two different incongruent things. If the assessment done is congruent with the learning they did, children will feel that what they have learned is useful. 3. Children and parents should understand assessment issues. Their understanding will make the assessment process more meaningful since they can participate and supports greatly on behave of children’s English development. On the other hand, if they do not understand why the teacher does this and that, there will be no good communication between these three subjects to help children’s development. E. Techniques of Speaking Assessment Brown (2010) states some techniques of speaking assessment based on students’ language development level: Imitative Speaking This kind of assessment is intended to see whether students can imitate saying in English correctly. Eventhough it focuses on the accuracy of repeating words, it does not mean that it cannot be communicative and meaningful. Besides, in recent years many experts have discovered that an overemphasis on fluency can sometimes lead to the decline of accuracy in speech. Intensive Speaking There are four tasks in this kind of assessing: directed response task, oral questionnaire, and picture-cued task. In oral questionnaires, students are first given time to read the dialogue to get its main idea and to think about the appropriate lines to fill in. Then, as the tape, teacher produces one part orally; the students respond. In directed response task, students elicit a particular grammatical form of a transformation of a sentence. Such tasks are clearly mechanical and not communicative, but they do require minimal processing of meaning in order to produce the correct grammatical output. Picture-cued task requires a description from the students. Pictures may be very simple, designed to elicit a word or a phrase, or composed of a series that tells a story or incident. This task is meaningful since sometime a little sense of humor is injected. Responsive Speaking Assessment of responsive tasks involves brief interactions with an interlocutor, differing from intensive tasks in increased creativity given to the student and from interactive tasks by somewhat limited length of utterances. The kinds of this assessment are question and answer, giving instructions and directions, and paraphrasing. Questions and answers involve oral interaction with teacher. Assessing Young Learners’ Speaking Ability in the Fifth Grade of Three Elementary Schools in Padang. (2016, Sep 10). ng-learners-speaking-ability-in-the-fifth-grade-of-three-elementary-schools-in-padang-essay We will write a custom sample essay on Assessing Young Learners’ Speaking Ability in the Fifth Grade of Three Elementary Schools in Padang specifically for you We have essays on the following topics that may be of interest to you

Child Behavior and Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Child Behavior and Development - Essay Example He was able to distinguish between a â€Å"cookie† and a â€Å"cake†. The child had asked for a cookie and his brother gave him a cake instead which he refused and insisted he gets a cookie. The child displayed his language and communication ability by answering all the people around him. Kyle was rather a sweet child who got along better with older children and adults. He always wanted to be the center of attraction while he bossed and gave instructions to his older brother and sister. He was a rather friendly kid as he laughed and joked pulling at his brother’s coat and ran around the table as he sat on each one's lap. He seemed to be an egocentric kid as he was always trying to grab the attention of others. According to Erickson, a child’s psycho-social behavior can be judged by observing how well he interacts with people in his environment. He displayed an emotional attachment as he went in search of his grandfather and when he missed his mother he called out, â€Å"Mommy where are you?† I found Kyle to be a healthy kid who was very active and strong. He had excellent motor skills as he tried to hop, jump, twist and run around the whole place. He banged several times on the glass table and laughed louder as he banged harder. While sitting at the table he tried pushing it using both his feet. His brother assisted him to drink from a juice box, but he pulled it from him and began drinking it by himself. According to Piaget’s theory, a child uses his five senses when interacting with people and things in his environment. This is very true in Kyle’s case as he used his senses to interpret and deal with things around him. The child was a keen observer while playing at the sand table. He watched all the others around him and even answered his teacher while she asked him a few questions. He was capable of recognizing which object to use for scooping up the sand.

Technology and education.What if we didn't depend on technology in the Essay

Technology and education.What if we didn't depend on technology in the classroom as much as we do - Essay Example Education reform continues to be a question of grave concern for educators and policy makers. Braithwaite’s (2002) novel To Sir With Love which was set in the 1960s informs that education reform is nothing new. Students are particularly vulnerable to failure both at school and after school. Braithwaite’s (2002) novel cautions that students are resistant to traditional teaching methods and require training which goes beyond mere academic learning. In today’s world, President Barak Obama cautions a student body that regardless of what career choices they make, they will require some level of computer literacy (Obama 2011). Essentially, we are learning that education reform places a greater degree of pressure on teachers as they attempt to improve teaching techniques and outcomes. As it is, educators and policy-makers are concerned about the high drop-out rate among high school students across the US (Obama 2011). In other words, keeping students engaged becomes mor e challenging when teachers are required to integrate technology into the curriculum. On the other hand, integrating technology into the curriculum can be one method of responding to the drop-out rate. Research studies reveal that academic performance and being held back are not the only contributing factors to the school drop-out rate. In fact, these studies also reveal that a student’s attitude toward school student’s experience at also contributes to the school drop-out rate (Lamb 2011, p. 370).... As Lamb (2011) informs, research studies indicate that students are at a greater risk of dropping out of school when their academic performance is poor. It therefore follows that non-conventional teaching can improve engagement and as such can improve retention. Arguably, engagement is tied to academic performance. This explains why there is so much emphasis on education reform and the significance of quality teaching. Braithwaite’s (2002) teacher did not have the science and technology at his disposal to introduce innovative and non-conventional methods of teaching. He was forced to be creative and by doing so engaged his East London students who were by no stretch of the imagination, conventional students. The result was, these children’s attitudes toward school changed and the students were for the most part successful. Bennett (2011) reveals the extent to which teaching occupies the minds of policy-makers. This is a result of the poor academic outcomes. According to Bennett (2011), the National Assessment of Educational Progress revealed that 40 percent of American high school seniors scored 36 percent below average in math and 26 percent below average in reading. The results for American history are even more disappointing with high school seniors scoring over 50 percent below average (Bennett 2011). Bennett (2011) explains that while these poor outcomes can be accounted for by a number of issues, one thing is certain: quality teaching can turn this around. This brings us to the question of technology in the classroom. Technology has the potential to improve teaching by bringing into the classroom a significant part of the student’s daily life and future job prospects. Therefore technology in

Skills Shortage and HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Skills Shortage and HRM - Essay Example Furthermore, it often increases the crime rate as people resort to earning money in illegal ways due to their unemployment. Other problems like low morale in the workforce, and economic recession are also very common due to unemployment. Furthermore, it discourages people to pursue further education because they see how even the highly educated people are often forced to do jobs which are below their potential, simply due to the lack of jobs available. Thus, unemployment has a major negative effect on the economy and welfare (Beresford, pg 190, 2004). Another difficult, however completely different, scenario occurs when the economy has plenty of jobs available in various industries, but does not have enough skilled labor to meet this demand. Whereas the people in the above mentioned situation were forced to compete with several other qualified people for the same job, this scenario describes a situation where companies are competing against each other for the same potential employee. They are forced to do this when the economy does not have an adequate supply of people with the skills which these companies require (Capelli, pg 145, 2005). PROBLEM WITH THIS SHORTAGE A shortage of skilled labor as described above usually pertains to fields which require high level skills, such as those needed for the technological industries. These industries are ever changing and developing, and thus require the workers to have updated and relevant skills. Such a feat can only be accomplished by regularly training these workers, which requires time and money. Sometimes, workers with such updated skills are not available for the companies to fill their vacancies. This causes severe problems, because then the company has to divert substantial resources to recruitment, which costs them heavily to get new employees; whereas new employees are supposed to be making more money for them, not costing them their funds. This causes problems for the companies, and thus it is necessary for t hem to determine some cost effective recruitment strategies (Goss, pg 232, 1994). POSSIBLE RECRUITMENT STRATEGIES One way of employing such cost-effective recruitment methods is to pay attention to factors which will attract employees as well as motivate them to keep working. These include the fringe benefits, bonuses, promotions, training programs and compensation rates that these companies offer the employees. The management style, reputation and size of the company are also very important factors in this regard. Different factors have a different level of importance for employees. Some may prefer a job which pays them a high salary, while others may be attracted to large companies with good reputations in the industry. Thus, these companies need to account for these individual differences when recruiting employees (Capelli, pg 146, 2005). Not every company can afford to offer the potential employees being recruited all the above benefits. In fact, some companies may face severe d ifficulties in recruiting new people due to such limited resources. If they exist in an economy which has a very limited supply of employees who possess the skills needed, they face major problems when trying to recruit such employees. Since they do not have all the resources other companies may be able to offer employees, they will not be the preferred choice of employers for

How did the events and ideas in your primary source reading reflect Essay

How did the events and ideas in your primary source reading reflect broader changes in American history for this period - Essay Example African Americans wanted to become autonomous. This autonomy would be achieved if an Africa free of White domination was achieved. Africans had to be liberated from colonization. This notion was demonstrated in the speech of Marcus Garvey in the Second International Convention of Negroes held at Liberty Hall, New York (Garvey, 1921). The speech centrally suggested that Africans should fight for freedom even if it will cost their lives. This reflects the broader changes in American History because African Americans were becoming disillusioned due to segregation, racial discrimination and racial violence; and they were ready to fight for their liberty. In the early 20th century, there was a general wave of calls for the liberty of African Americans that led to the formation of Universal Negro Improvement Association and the African Communities League. The founder of the association was Marcus Garvey. It was based on the belief of respect of human rights and supremacy of God almighty. At the period when the organisation was formed, African Americans were suffering from the injustice committed by the Whites. In Africa, African states were colonized. Europeans had sliced their land and divided among themselves (Fredrickson, 1995). Africans were forced to surrender their wealth to aliens, and to make things worse, they were forced to work for the Whites in the same lands that belonged to them before they were taken away. In United States, African Americans were still enslaved, segregated and discriminated. In United States, like in Africa, Black people were not accorded equal treatment with whites. They were not allowed in hotels and inns in the same extent as their white counterparts (Fredrickson, 1995). As a result of this, African Americans were determined to fight for their liberty. Southern parts of USA experienced high levels of African-American segregations in public places. The Jim Crow compelled

CREATE ONE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CREATE ONE - Essay Example Technology has brought everything at hand by bringing people together so that they can contact each other even if miles away in the matter of seconds. It has strengthened the world by providing a platform that is used by many to flourish in the society (Morley 2011). The introduction of smartphones and tablets has further added to the integrity of the computers. These smartphones and tablets can now be used as an alternative to computers and carry out simple tasks in a portable manner. This essay would revolve around the concept of computers and technology in the modern society along with the ethical implications that they pose globally. This history of computers can be dated back to the 20th century but the real usage of computers really began after the 1980s after innovation brought up nicer models in the market. These computers were then accessible to a greater lot of people and hence they could experience the age of information technology. It was then that the World Wide Web was introduced but it could only be used by experts in that particular field in the beginning. After 1984, Apple and IBM introduced models of computers that were easy to use and this marked the beginning of the computers in the modern society. The major contributors of the computers are said to be John Mauchly and Presper Eckert as these individuals together were able to found the giant ENIAC in the 1940s. It was after their introduction that this field of information technology could prosper in the years coming (History of Computers 2015). After the introduction of internet, the usage of computers has further evolved and nowadays it is being used as a major source of entertainment by many. Computers have helped to ease the lives of many individuals in the world today by providing a platform through which things that were earlier considered impossible can be easily done. It has made a way into the markets of commerce and has thus

Skills Shortage and HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Skills Shortage and HRM - Essay Example Furthermore, it often increases the crime rate as people resort to earning money in illegal ways due to their unemployment. Other problems like low morale in the workforce, and economic recession are also very common due to unemployment. Furthermore, it discourages people to pursue further education because they see how even the highly educated people are often forced to do jobs which are below their potential, simply due to the lack of jobs available. Thus, unemployment has a major negative effect on the economy and welfare (Beresford, pg 190, 2004). Another difficult, however completely different, scenario occurs when the economy has plenty of jobs available in various industries, but does not have enough skilled labor to meet this demand. Whereas the people in the above mentioned situation were forced to compete with several other qualified people for the same job, this scenario describes a situation where companies are competing against each other for the same potential employee. They are forced to do this when the economy does not have an adequate supply of people with the skills which these companies require (Capelli, pg 145, 2005). PROBLEM WITH THIS SHORTAGE A shortage of skilled labor as described above usually pertains to fields which require high level skills, such as those needed for the technological industries. These industries are ever changing and developing, and thus require the workers to have updated and relevant skills. Such a feat can only be accomplished by regularly training these workers, which requires time and money. Sometimes, workers with such updated skills are not available for the companies to fill their vacancies. This causes severe problems, because then the company has to divert substantial resources to recruitment, which costs them heavily to get new employees; whereas new employees are supposed to be making more money for them, not costing them their funds. This causes problems for the companies, and thus it is necessary for t hem to determine some cost effective recruitment strategies (Goss, pg 232, 1994). POSSIBLE RECRUITMENT STRATEGIES One way of employing such cost-effective recruitment methods is to pay attention to factors which will attract employees as well as motivate them to keep working. These include the fringe benefits, bonuses, promotions, training programs and compensation rates that these companies offer the employees. The management style, reputation and size of the company are also very important factors in this regard. Different factors have a different level of importance for employees. Some may prefer a job which pays them a high salary, while others may be attracted to large companies with good reputations in the industry. Thus, these companies need to account for these individual differences when recruiting employees (Capelli, pg 146, 2005). Not every company can afford to offer the potential employees being recruited all the above benefits. In fact, some companies may face severe d ifficulties in recruiting new people due to such limited resources. If they exist in an economy which has a very limited supply of employees who possess the skills needed, they face major problems when trying to recruit such employees. Since they do not have all the resources other companies may be able to offer employees, they will not be the preferred choice of employers for

CREATE ONE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CREATE ONE - Essay Example Technology has brought everything at hand by bringing people together so that they can contact each other even if miles away in the matter of seconds. It has strengthened the world by providing a platform that is used by many to flourish in the society (Morley 2011). The introduction of smartphones and tablets has further added to the integrity of the computers. These smartphones and tablets can now be used as an alternative to computers and carry out simple tasks in a portable manner. This essay would revolve around the concept of computers and technology in the modern society along with the ethical implications that they pose globally. This history of computers can be dated back to the 20th century but the real usage of computers really began after the 1980s after innovation brought up nicer models in the market. These computers were then accessible to a greater lot of people and hence they could experience the age of information technology. It was then that the World Wide Web was introduced but it could only be used by experts in that particular field in the beginning. After 1984, Apple and IBM introduced models of computers that were easy to use and this marked the beginning of the computers in the modern society. The major contributors of the computers are said to be John Mauchly and Presper Eckert as these individuals together were able to found the giant ENIAC in the 1940s. It was after their introduction that this field of information technology could prosper in the years coming (History of Computers 2015). After the introduction of internet, the usage of computers has further evolved and nowadays it is being used as a major source of entertainment by many. Computers have helped to ease the lives of many individuals in the world today by providing a platform through which things that were earlier considered impossible can be easily done. It has made a way into the markets of commerce and has thus

Immanuel Kant - Ethics Essay Example for Free

Immanuel Kant Ethics Essay Immanuel Kant was born in Konigsberg, East Prussia in 1724. He attended the Collegium Fridiricianum at eight years old where he was taught classicism. Then he went to the University of Konigsberg where he spent his career focusing on philosophy, mathematics, and physics. When his is father past away, Kant left the university and earned his living as a private tutor. In 1755 he returned to the University to receive his doctorate in 1756. Immanuel Kant remained at the University teaching for 15 years. He received his tenure at the University in 1770, where he stayed for the next 27 years. In 1792 he was barred from teaching or writing on religious subjects do to his unorthodox approach in his teaching by King Fredrick William II. He returned to teaching after the king had passed away five years later. In his retirement he published a summary of his views on religion. Immanuel Kant passed away in 1804. Immanuel Kant was widely known for his categorical imperative theory. Categorical imperative is how one determines one’s duty, what principles are proper, and which are not. Doing one’s duty for the sake of duty itself is better than simply acting in agreement with one’s duty. Telling the truth in order to benefit yourself is acting in accordance with duty and not acting for the sake of duty. The categorical imperative states, â€Å"Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will it should become universal law(Keele, 2008). † Maxim in this sentence is the moral part of your action. Categorical imperative tells us it is immoral to make an exception of our self. Just like my mother would say treat and act as you would want others to treat and act towards you. In the news I view an article about â€Å"School knife attack poses ethical dilemma for daily. † In this article they talk about the Worcester New identifying a schoolboy as a suspect. The news published the boy’s name and picture on Facebook putting the boy’s life at risk. After the boy was found the news took down the boy’s picture at once. Everyone was perplexed by this situation asking why they put picture up and then took it down. According to the Worcester News, the situation change, where they were trying to find the boy to stop him from hurting himself or others and then to protecting the child. Would the newspapers actions have been ethical according to Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative? First let’s take a look at the reasons why they did it. The newspaper stated they put his picture up to protect him and other, then took down to protect him. I believe they were acting in the best of society myself by putting the information up. According to Immanuel Kant’s theory they were acting in accordance with their duty. They had a duty to let the public know what was going on to protect other students and teachers If they didn’t act with such speed would the boy have been found so soon? I think not! This boy could have went on a killing spree and if the Worcester News didn’t report it they would not have been acting in the best of society and would not have been doing their duty. But then to take down the information I feel is unethical. They don’t take down any information when it comes to any other person involved in a crime. Immanuel Kant stated that it is immoral to make an exception of yourself. The Worcester News should hold to the same standards as any other crime they report. I understand that they are trying to protect the boy, but if you are going to report any other crime and not take it down this should happen in the same way. In conclusion, based on my research I feel that Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative theory is important to our society today. It holds everyone to the same standards! He has help to maintain a set of standards for our society that requires everyone to be treated the same. The study of ethics is important in today’s business and government world because it sets standard for all to abide. From John Locke’s right theory to Kohlberg’s moral development stages. They all 1 / 2 set standards in which business need to stay within. If there were no standards there would be more scandals in the news than there is. References Britannica. (2014). Immanuel Kant. Retrieved from http://www. philosophypages. com/ph/kant. htm. Keele, Lisa. (2008, The Categorical Imperative of Immanuel Kant. Retrieved from https://www. suite. io/lisa-keele/ypd2fk. Linfold, Paul. (2014, September 28). School Knife Attack Poses Ethical Dilemma For Daily. Retrieved from http://www. holdthefrontpage. co. uk/2014/news/school-knife-attack-poses-ethical- dilemma-for-daily/ POWERED BY TCPDF (WWW. TCPDF. ORG).